While there are numerous individual examples, all of the societies explored in the chapter reacted to growing European intrusions through modernization programs, although Japan’s modernization program was more radical and far-reaching than the programs of China and the Ottoman Empire.
• All of the societies also dealt with issues of identity, as they sought new ways to define themselves. This is especially notable in the Ottoman Empire, where a new nationalist Turkish identity took shape.
• All of the societies debated the extent to which Western models should be followed.
• All of the societies dealt with conflicts between modernizers and more conservative elements in their societies
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