Crop Science

Format for Research Papers

California State University, Bakersfield

Department of Biology

A scientific research report is a form of

communication in which the investigator

succinctly presents and interprets data collected in

an investigation. Writing such reports is similar to

the writing in other scientific disciplines except

that the format will differ as will the criteria for

grading.

Writing the Report

The questions and hypotheses that initiate

an investigation, the resultant data gathered, and

the background information obtained by reading

the literature will lead to conclusions. Your

research report presents these conclusions and the

appropriate evidence (data and relevant literature).

Before writing the report, construct an

outline that logically presents the information to

support your conclusions. Organize the data into

tables and figures to present the evidence in a

logical order. Many authors prefer to construct a

draft by rapidly putting down ideas with little

regard to sentence structure, and to make

corrections later. Others prefer to make revisions

as they proceed. Write the report with a target

audience of other students with experience in

biology equivalent to that of the class for which

the report is written.

Proper use of English is considered

paramount in grading. Your major responsibility

is to make the reader understand exactly what you

mean by using words with precision, clarity, and

economy. Every sentence should be exact and say

something of importance (no “padding”).

Economy and accuracy require using

straightforward English sentences (subject, verb,

and object). Follow a consistent pattern of tenses.

Write in the active voice unless you have good

reason to use the passive voice. The active is the

natural voice, the one in which people commonly

speak and write.

Quotations are to be avoided. All

sentences should be based on your understanding

of source material that you then write as your own

original sentences. When discussing the works of

others, do not include extraneous information,

such as first names or scientific affiliations. In

scientific writing, the major idea of a paragraph (or

sentence) is placed first. Evidence for the idea,

modifications, exceptions, etc., then follow. This

allows readers to quickly skim research reports by

reading the first sentence in each paragraph.

After finishing a draft, review it to see if

the paragraphs and sentences follow a logical

sequence. Examine the arrangement of paragraphs

within a section; some may belong in another

section. Make sure that the transitions from one

idea to another are clear. Study each sentence to

see if it can be clarified, shortened, or omitted.

Rewrite as necessary to achieve clarity. This type

of review and rewriting is best done after not

looking at the manuscript for a few days. Then,

you should be able to approach the manuscript

with renewed objectivity. Knowledgeable friends

and classmates can also help with this review

process.

Type your report using double spacing, 12

point font, left margin justified, and one inch

margins. Number pages with the Introduction on

the page following the title page. Do not use

running heads; your name should only appear on

the title page. Proofread and spell-check your

paper to correct errors.

Report Format

Scientific research report format is based

on the scientific method and is organized to enable

the reader to quickly comprehend the main points

of the investigation. The format required in all

biology classes consists of a Title Page, Abstract,

Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and

Literature Cited sections.

Section headings (Abstract, Introduction,

Results, etc.) are always capitalized, centered, and

placed with the body of each section immediately

following. The end of one section is immediately

followed by the next section on the same page.

There should be no table of contents.

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The title should be placed on the title page

along with your name (or names if multi-authored)

and any other information required in the class.

The title must be descriptive of the work carried

out. The name(s) of the author(s) should only

appear on the title page. The reader should be able

to tell, just by reading the title, what has been done

without having to read the paper. With a title such

as

A Biology Lab Report

the reader has no idea whether the work involved

an animal, plant, or microorganism, or what was

measured or tested. The following is a self

explanatory title:

The Effects of Light and Temperature on the Growth of the

Bacterium Escherichia coli Here the title specifically states three things: the

environmental factors that were manipulated (light

and temperature); the response of the organism

that was measured (growth); and the specific

organism that was used (Escherichia coli). Notice

that scientific names of organisms are italicized in

printed material. Only the genus begins with an

uppercase letter.

If several variables were used, you do not

need to state all the specific factors that were

manipulated. For example, if several chemicals

were used the following title would be acceptable:

Effects of Various Chemicals on the Growth of Escherichia coli

In cases such as these, the title would be too long

if it included every variable that was used.

Abstract

The abstract is a short summary of the

purpose of the study, the basic findings of the

research, and the conclusions that can be drawn

based on these findings. The abstract should be no

more than 4-5 sentences, and only longer if you

have many separate results.

Introduction

The Introduction concisely describes the

purpose of the investigation and should tell the

reader why this work was done. You should

briefly review past research on the problem with

enough background information to orient the

reader (this is usually accomplished by a literature

search of published materials). The background

information included must be appropriately

referenced (see the section on how to cite

references). You might first discuss the general

problem or theory pertaining to the problem you

are studying, and then discuss the topic more

specifically to the group, species, or specific area

you are researching.

You should conclude the Introduction with

a statement of the problem (the hypothesis) you

have investigated. State the specific question(s)

you are attempting to answer, the general method

used, and how your investigation will help clarify

or expand the knowledge in the general area. One

function of the Introduction is to briefly tell the

reader what to expect in the paper. Therefore, it

may be easier to write the Introduction after

completing the rest of the paper.

Methods

In this section, you explain the type of data

gathered or the experiment in sufficient detail so

that it can be duplicated. Avoid unnecessary

details and include only information that is

necessary to complete the experiment or gather the

data. The experimental design, apparatus,

procedures of gathering and analyzing data, types

of control, etc., should be described. If standard

procedures are used, cite the reference and

describe only the modifications made (if any).

When experiments are conducted outdoors,

you should describe the factors that may influence

the results of the investigation such as location of

the study site, the weather, etc. If any specimens

were collected for the investigation, you should

state how, where and when that material was

collected. Photographs, maps, and diagrams (all

presented as figures) can be used as an aid in

describing the experimental procedures.

Write the Methods section in the past

tense. It should not be written as if it were

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directions in a laboratory manual; therefore, do

not make a list of materials and do not give

instructions on how to do something. For example,

do not write:

For this experiment you will need the following equipment: six petri plates, one liter of agar, and one inoculating loop. First pour agar into the six petri plates, then inoculate the plates with a fungus using the inoculating loop. Then you put the plates into the incubator.

It sounds as though you are leading the reader by

the hand, telling him how to do the experiment.

You should succinctly describe either in the first

person or in passive voice how the experiment was

done. Mention the materials that were used in the

research in the narrative as the experimental

procedure is explained in detail. The reader

should be able to make a list of necessary

materials while reading the section. An acceptable

manner to convey the same idea as the above is:

Six petri plates were prepared with agar, inoculated with an inoculating loop, and placed in the incubator for ten hours at 37

o C.

Results

In this section, you present the data in a

straightforward manner with no analysis of the

reasons the results occurred or the biological

meaning of the data (these comments are reserved

for the Discussion). However, you should

interpret the data (preferably statistically),

highlight significant data and point out patterns,

correlations, and generalizations that emerge.

Also write this section using the past tense.

Data are generally organized into tables

and/or figures (graphs). Tables and figures must

be accompanied by a caption and be referred to in

the text. A Results section that includes only a

table or a figure and no text is not acceptable.

Unreduced, unsummarized, or “raw” data should

not be included. The text describes the results

presented in tables and figures and calls attention

to significant data discussed later in the report. Do

not repeat what is already clear to the reader from

reviewing the tables and figures, which, if well

constructed, will show both the results and

experimental design. A portion of the results text

might read as follows.

The number of bacterial colonies increased up to 40ºC, but decreased at higher temperatures (Figure 1). The greatest amount of growth occurred between 35° and 40°C.

In this example, Figure 1 refers to the graph in

which the data are presented. In the same

sentence, the author says something about the data

and refers the reader to the appropriate figure. The

figure (graph) may contain numerous data points

(e.g., number of bacterial colonies at 1º C intervals

from 0º to 60º C), but the author did not bore the

reader with a description of each. Rather,

generalizations are made concerning the

relationships shown by the data, which the figure

illustrates (“a picture is worth a thousand words”). Use of Tables and Figures

Summarize data in a form that allows the

reader to easily see any correlations, relationships,

or patterns that are important. Typical forms for

doing this are tables and figures. Tables are made

when it is important that specific values are shown

(i.e. means, standard deviations, etc.). Figures are

made when it is more important to shown trends or

relationships of data. Certain requirements,

however, must be met:

1) Refer to the tables as Tables; refer to all other

items (graphs, pictures, drawings, maps, etc.)

as figures.

2) When you include a table and/or figure, you

must refer to it in the text. For example,

consider the following sentence.

The results of the temperature experiment are somewhat confusing (Figure 1).

This sentence tells the reader that all the

pertinent data are to be found in Figure 1

(a graph, perhaps) and to refer to the figure

while reading.

3) Independently number tables and figures. For

example, in a paper containing two tables and

two figures, you would number the tables

Table 1 and Table 2, and the figures as

Figure 1 and Figure 2.

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4) Assign tables and figures their respective

numbers on the basis of the order in which you

first mention them in the text. The first table

you mentioned is Table 1, the second is Table

2, etc. The same applies for the figures.

5) Tables and figures can either follow as closely

as possible the actual page on which the table

or figure is mentioned in the text or be

included on individual pages following

Literature Cited. Ask your instructor for their

preference.

6) All tables and figures must have self

explanatory captions. The rules for composing

the captions are the same as for composing the

title of the paper. The reader should be able to

look at a table or figure and by reading the

caption know exactly what was done in that

part of the experiment without having to read

the text for an explanation.

7) All tables and figures should include the units

of measurement used (grams, meters, seconds,

etc.). Otherwise the data are meaningless. All

columns in a table and both axes (X axis and Y

axis) of a graph must be independently labeled

including units.

8) Headers for tables are always placed above the

table, and captions for figures are always

placed below the figure.

Discussion

In this section, you attempt to explain the

meaning of the results, giving particular attention

to the problem or hypothesis posed in the

Introduction. You should address physical,

chemical, and biological factors that may have

affected the results. The way the results came out

may be advantageous or disadvantageous to the

biological system being considered (e.g., cell,

organism) and you should discuss this. To do this

competently, you should be familiar with

appropriate literature including books and journal

articles (the background information mentioned in

the Introduction). Compare the results to the

back-ground information and, in doing so,

construct explanations why the results occurred.

You should also explain differences from or

similarities to any related experiments completed

by other workers.

In constructing explanations, you reach

conclusions that explain the outcome, support

those conclusions with well reasoned arguments,

and documentation from the scientific literature.

In effect, you are presenting and defending a point

of view in the discussion section.

Literature Cited

Citing Literature in the Text of the Paper Whenever you mention information that is not

common knowledge or was not obtained

personally (through experiments or observations),

you must include a reference to indicate the source

of that information. Failure to cite the work of

others not only does not give proper credit to the

researchers, but is considered plagiarism. There

are several ways that references can be cited in a

scientific paper. You must follow the format

described here. Scientific papers usually do not

use footnotes (so don’t).

When referencing information, place the

name(s) of the author(s) at the end of the sentence

in parentheses with the year of publication. For

example,

Some birds are primarily insectivorous and probably

obtain all the water they need from the body fluids of the

insects they eat (Jones and Smith 1963).

If readers want to see the publication in which this

information appeared, they can turn to the

Literature Cited section, find the reference, and

look it up. Alternatively, place the name(s) of the

author(s) of the information in the statement. The

name(s) should be followed by the year of the

publication (in parentheses) in which that

information appeared. For example,

Most of the information in this guide on how to write a

scientific research report originally appeared in

Gubanich (1985).

However, use this way of reference sparingly as

the information is the most important part of the

sentence, not the authors.

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If reference to more than one publication is

required in the same sentence, place the citations

in the appropriate parts of that sentence.

Although not all birds have to drink water (Jones and

Smith 1963), there are numerous exceptions (Taylor

1964, Smith and Smith 1968, Altert et al. 1969). The

metabolic rate of the species seems to play a role

(Harrigan 1965) as well as the food source

(Montgomery and Landers 1966).

If three or more authors wrote a single

reference (such as Oksche, Farner, Serventy,

Wolff and Nichols 1963), the citation is

abbreviated as follows:

The zebra finch was found to differ in these respects

from the species observed in this study (Oksche et al.

1963).

In this case only the name of the first author is

used, followed by the abbreviation et al. Both are

Latin; et means “and” and al. is the abbreviation of

alnon, which means “others” (hence, “and

others”). When this reference is listed in

Literature Cited, however, all the authors must be

included.

The Literature Cited Section

The Literature Cited lists, in alphabetical

order by the last name of the first author, all

published information that was referred to in the

paper. This section provides the reader with the

information needed to access the original sources.

Note that the Literature Cited includes only those

references that were actually cited. Any other

information that you may have read concerning the

problem but did not mention (cite) in the paper is

not included. This is why the section is called

Literature Cited, instead of References or

Bibliography. Literature Cited is always the last

section. The proper order of the citation is:

author(s), year of publication, title of article, and

source (name of journal or book in which the

article appears). The first author is listed last

name first followed by the initials; other authors

are listed with initials before the last name. The

last author is separated from the preceding authors

by the word “and.” No quotation marks (or

underlining) are used in the citation, not even

around the titles of articles. Only proper nouns are

capitalized in the title of the article. However, the

first letters of book titles or journals are

capitalized. If the source is a journal, the name of

the journal is followed by the volume number and

the page numbers (e.g., Ecology 49:212-214).

If the information comes from a book in

which the chapters are credited to different

authors, the reference in Literature Cited is

credited to the author of the chapter and the title of

the article is the chapter title. In this case the page

numbers, editor(s) of the book and book title are

given as the source. If the information comes

from a book in which chapters are not credited to

different authors, the title of the article is the book

title. When citing a book, the name of the

publisher and the city are always given.

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Sample Citations

Follow these examples when listing citations in the Literature Cited Section.

Articles from journals

Smith, P. T., S. Kambhampati, and K. A. Armstrong. 2003. Phylogenetic relationships among

Bactrocera species (Diptera: Tephritidae) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences.

Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 26:8-17.

Hoetker, G. M., and K. W. Gobalet. 1999. A fossil razorback sucker (Pisces: Catostomidae,

Xyrauchen texanus) from Southern California. Copeia 1999:755-599.

McBride, T. A., B. W. Stockert, F. A. Gorin, and R. C. Carlsen. 2000. Stretch-activated ion

channels contribute to membrane depolarization after eccentric exercise. Journal of

Applied Physiology 88:91-101.

Books

Bury, R. B., and D. J. Germano. 1994. Biology of North American Tortoises. United States

Department of the Interior, National Biological Survey, Wildlife Research No. 13.

Washington, D.C.

Gubanich, A.A. 1985. Writing a Scientific Paper: How to Survive the Laboratory Research

Report. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., Dubuque, Iowa.

Chapter in a book

Davis, S. D., K. J. Kolb, and K. P. Barton. 1998. Ecophysiological processes and demographic

patterns in the structuring of California chaparral. Pages 297-310 in: Landscape

Disturbance and Biodiversity in Mediterranean-type Ecosystems. Ecological Studies

Volume 136. Rundel, P., W. G. Montenegro, and F. Jaksic, editors. Springer Verlag,

Berlin.

Citation with an unknown author

Anonymous. 2000. Animal research: celebrities wanted. Science 287:1719.

Internet Sources

Online sources may not be cited unless they are online peer-reviewed literature (e-journals) or

are government publications. If the article found online can be found in paper form in a library,

simply cite as for a regular article (no internet source needed). If the article can only be found on

the internet, cite the reference as follows.

Kloock, C. 2005. Aerial insects avoid fluorescing scorpions. Euscorpius 21:1-7. Accessed

online at http://www.science.marshall.edu/fet/euscorpius/.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001. The Endangered Species Act of 1973. Accessed online at

http://endangered.fws.gov/esa.html.

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Tables

Tables should be constructed as shown below with only three rules (horizontal lines); no vertical

lines. Table descriptions should be detailed and placed above the body of the table.

Table 1. Fish remains identified from archaeological site CA-IMP-791 on the Colorado River.

Taxon

Element Count

Catostomidae 186

Razorback sucker 102

Cyprinidae 1

Gila sp. 167

Bonytail 9

Roundtail chub 2

Colorado pikeminnow 8

Table 2. The number of items (% of total items, % frequency of scats) found in scats of

Gambelia sila from the Kern Front Oil Field and the Lokern Natural Area, Kern Co. and the

Elkhorn Plain Natural Area, San Luis Obispo Co., California. Bolded entries are the total for the

order. The n value denotes the number of scats collected per area.

Taxon Kern Front (n=42) Elkhorn (n=19) Lokern (n=10) Combined (n = 69)

Coleoptera 4 (8%, 9.5%) 38 (69.0%, 94.7%) 30 (83.3%, 90.0%) 72 (51.1%, 43.7%)

Carabidae 6 (10.9%, 21%) 9 (25%, 33%) 15 (10.6%, 9.9%)

Cucurlionidae 4 (11.1%, 10%) 4 ( 2.8%, 1.4%)

Scarabidae 5 (9.1%, 15.8%) 5 (3.7%, 4.3%)

Tenebrionidae 13 (23.6%, 15.8%) 13 (9.6%, 4.3%)

Unidentified 4 (8%, 9.5%) 14 (25.5%, 42.1%) 17 (47.2%, 50%) 35 (24.8%, 23.9%)

Diptera 1 (2%, 2.4%) 2 (5.6%, 20%) 3 (2.1%, 4.2%)

Muscidae 1 (2%, 2.4%) 1 (0.7%, 1.4%)

Unidentified 2 (6.5%, 25%) 2 (1.4%, 2.9%)

Hymenoptera 2 (4%, 4.8%) 9 (16.4%, 26.3%) 11 (7.8%, 9.9%)

Formicidae 1 (2%, 2.4%) 6 (10.9%, 10.5%) 7 (5.0%, 4.2%)

Vespidae 2 (3.6%, 10.5%) 2 (1.4%, 2.8%)

Unidentified 1 (2%, 2.4%) 1 (1.8%, 5.3%) 2 (1.4%, 2.8%)

Orthoptera 43 (86%, 95.2%) 7 (12.7%, 36.8%) 4 (11.1%, 40%) 54 (38.3%, 71.8%)

Acrididae 30 (60%, 66.7%) 1 (1.8%, 5.3%) 3 (8.3%, 33%) 34 (24.1%, 45.1%)

Unidentified 13 (26%, 28.6%) 6 (10.9%, 31.6%) 1 (2.8%, 10.0%) 20 (14.2%, 26.8%)

Total Items 50 55 36 141

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Figures

Figures encompass anything that is not data in a table. A figure could be a graph, a map, a line

drawing of a piece of an organism, a picture of an unusual piece of equipment used in the study,

etc. Descriptive captions for figures are placed below a figure.

Figure 2. Typical scales of topsmelt (Atherinops affinis), northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax),

and Pacific sardine (Sardinops sagax).

Figure 4. Percentage of gravid and non-gravid female Gambelia sila on the Elkhorn Plain,

California displaying breeding colors (BC) from 1992-1994. Numbers at the top of each bar are

sample sizes