Modern Experiential Outdoor Education

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. Background of the Problem

Modern
Experiential Outdoor Education (O.E.E.) has been in existence for more than 5
decades. Its origin is attributed to Kurt Hann who initiated the approach with
the view of improving the chances of survival to British seamen who were dying
in large numbers during naval warfare (Flavin, 1996). Initially the program was aimed at helping the young men develop
a strong character, realize their potential and develop the will to survive.

O.E.E is
recognized as being important in bringing about learning experiences that
enhance qualities such as teamwork, and life skills (Neil, 2003). Hattie,
Marsh, Neill & Richards (2003) define experiential activity/adventure as
the activities conducted in the wilderness such as camping, biking, hiking, and
climbing that are participated in by individuals as a means of recreation or
competition. However, it was later discovered that participation in these
activities not only serves recreational needs but has major benefits on the
psychological, social and physical wellness of a person (Etiene, 2004). It is
therefore imperative to determine whether these benefits can be enjoyed through
O.E.E by Kenya
army (K.A) and administration police (A.P). Police are mandated to provide security
and prevent commission of crime. For police to execute their duties well, the
must have self confidence and people skills. Since O.E.E is believed to enhance
some of the attributes that police need. This calls for research to be done
within Kenyan set-up to ascertain these claims and more so with K.A and A.P
personnel who are required by their job description to have good life
effectiveness skills and teamwork. The effect of O.E.E on participants range
from; psychosocial, life skills to physical benefits (Neil, 2003 and Simpson,
2010). However, not many people, particularly in the developing countries, have
fully embraced the tendency/tradition of participating in O.E.E. There is
little documented evidence of how O.E.E in the Kenyan set-up can impact on
those who engage in it, necessitating the need to fill this gap.

O.E.E
is determined by the individual with the purpose of achieving personal
development and growth (Glass 2002). Good teamwork skills are essential in
bringing together warring groups, and better still, resolving conflicts
(Ochieng, 2010).  For instance, post
election violence of 2007 in Kenya
led to the need of having reconciliation and team building activities (Ochieng,
2010). It is in the light of this that a peace outreach and teambuilding
program was organized by Kenya National Outreach, Counseling
and Training Program. The participants were able to reconcile and made to
change their attitude in the way they perceived others from different ethnic
groups.

In
Kenya,
the concept of outdoor education is gaining ground through institutions such as
Outward Bound, Mark Savage White Water Rafting and Mount Kenya School of
Adventure and Leadership (KESAL). KESAL was established in 1991 as a government
O.E.E centre
based in the Mount Kenya region. It
uses a heuristic
approach to learning, which encompasses self discovery
and actualization.
KESAL focuses on short, but intensive training programmes for responsible
leadership and good citizenship (Kesal, 2010).

Kolb’s
experiential learning theory as advanced by Greenway (2002) comprises a number
of learning cycles. According to Kolb, the conventional education system that
is largely embraced in the world fails to provide students with the reflective
part. The concept of experiential learning provides participants with
action/activity from which learning lessons can be drawn from. The Kolb’s
theory has not been fully applied in majority of education sectors in Kenya since a
lot of emphasis is placed on passing examinations rather than developing and
enhancing adequate life effectiveness and teamwork skills. 

1.2 Problem
Statement

The
world has become more dynamic, and as a result, competition for jobs and the
limited resources is on the rise. This has culminated to many people attending
learning institutions to gain knowledge and relevant skills, but still, the
challenges of effective teamwork, time management, positive self concept,
emotional stability and initiative have not been well tackled and more so on
daily life challenges that require heightened self confidence, self concept
teamwork, social skills and intellectual flexibility(Simpson, 2010). The above mentioned skills come in very handy in
police work who must have self
confidence, teamwork and social competence so as to deal with their responsibilities
effectively and efficiently. Few officers from K.A and A.P attend O.E.E since
it is one of requirement before they get promotion, it has not been well
established whether number of years in service have a bearing on development of
life skills and teamwork. According to David (2003), the conventional
education has fallen short to fully enhance individuals with skills of tackling
daily life and work related challenges because the emphasis has been more on
excelling in examinations rather than enhancing life skills and teamwork which
are better achieved in outdoor education. Despite the importance of outdoor
education in imparting life skills and teamwork, limited research has been
carried out in Kenya
to find how participation in O.E.E can help in bridging the gap between
theoretical concepts and real life experience. It is in the light of this that
it becomes necessary to find out how O.E.E can impact on individuals’ life
skills and team work.

1.3       Purpose
of the Study

Purpose of this
study will be to analyze the impact of outdoor education on team-work and life
effectiveness skills of K.A and A.P personnel. The life effectiveness skills
include time management, social competence, achievement motivation, task
leadership, emotional control, intellectual flexibility, active initiative and
self confidence, while teamwork attributes include sharing of information,
group problem solving, group working, assisting in determining goals of the
group and understanding activities.

1.4       Objectives
of the Study

The objectives
of this study will be to:

1. Determine what effect O.E.E will have on individuals’
   life skills like among K.A and A.P.
2. Determine whether O.E.E will impact upon self
   confidence, task leadership, intellectual flexibility and active initiative among
   K.A and A.P.
3. Determine whether O.E.E will develop teamwork skills
   among K.A and A.P.

1.5       Research
Hypotheses

H₀₁
O.E.E will not have significant effect among K.A and A.P on life skills that
include:

• Emotional
  control.
• Time
  management.
• Achievement
  motivation.
• Social
  competence.
• Self
  confidence.
• Task
  leadership.
• Intellectual
  flexibility.
• Active
  initiative.

H₀₃ There will be no significant
difference before and after O.E.E. in terms of 
teams working skills among K.A and A.P.

H₀₄ O.E.E will not have a significant
difference in enhancing life skills and teamwork among K.A and A.P across their
rank before and after participating in O.E.E.

1.6       Significance
of the Study

This study will
be a yardstick to other researchers who intend to carry out similar researches
in other institutions to investigate the possible outcomes of engaging in O.E.E
thereby, enhance literature on outdoor programs as well as the justify the
rationale why  K.A and A.P. take their
officers for O.E.E. The study aims at providing basic, but concrete,
information to physical educators, participants and the general public
pertaining to the effect of participating in O.E.E. It is also likely to
encourage other researchers in the same field to engage in more research on
O.E.E as well revising and expanding existing knowledge in this field.

1.7   
Delimitations of the Study

1). The research will be delimited to K.A and A.P
personnel   undertaking O.E.E leadership
course at KESAL.

2).The study will rely on self-reporting information from the subjects.

1.  Limitation of the Study

The study will
focus on K.A and A.P officers who will have trained together and known one
another. It therefore follows that generalizations of this study may not be
applicable to other groups undertaking O.E.E who may not necessarily have had
an opportunity of having prior interaction and training.

1.9       Assumptions
of the Study

 i)    
The respondents will respond appropriately to the questionnaire.

 ii)   
The information provided by the respondents will be truthful.

 iii) Any changes observed will be as a result
of engagement in O.E.E and not any other factors outside participation in
outdoor leadership course.

1.10     Theoretical
Framework

This study will
be based on Experiential Learning Theory advanced by Kolb (1984), who asserts
that concrete experience comes not only from classroom work but through
reflection of experiences one gets from participating in the activities and as
a result of drawing knowledge and skills from it. Kolb highlights the need of
presenting content in relation to previous experiences in constructing own
model of experiential education. In O.E.E, the learner is expected to derive
learning opportunity by participating in the activities given, and in which he
/she can draw experiences that are believed to assist the individual in coping
with daily stresses of life as well as developing skills that will assist in
dealing with challenges in a better way (Ibid). 

In the initial phase, the facilitator engages the
learners in a tangible experience in
form of a play, demonstration or even a game. The learners then review
the experiences from many perspectives by asking themselves questions like what
happened? What did I observe? The second phase is the reflective observation where participants look back critically on what
they did and lapses, as well as areas they did well. Here they analyze
how well they communicated, managed time, initiated new and workable ideas, how
well they remained calm during the execution of the task and how they
accommodated each other’s views and opinions. During the third phase of abstract conceptualization, the
learners develop theories and look at patterns. They ask themselves questions
like: how do you account for what you observed? and How is it significant? It
is at this phase that any change in life effectiveness skills is expected to
take place by making participants to be in a position to learn from their
mistakes and understand how their can enhance the good attributes. The last
phase is active experimentation;
the learners suggest ways of applying learnt principles and ask themselves
questions like; how can we apply this learning? In what ways can we use it next
time? What would we do differently? 
After going through the four phases, the learners are expected to draw
concrete experience which they can transfer to other areas in their life like
proper time management and collaborating with others. Life effectiveness skills
and team work will be captured in the 4 stages of Kolb learning theory of
experiential learning by having learners execute task that will be presented,
reflecting, conceptualization and putting into practice what they have learnt.

In
summary, Kolb’s theory in relation to experiential outdoor education is
illustrated

below.

Figure
1: Kolb’s Theory of Experiential Learning (Adapted from Kolb, 1984)

Experiential learning theory provides a model that enables learners to
draw from their past experiences to acquire new knowledge, skills, and/or
attitudes that they can then apply in their organizational settings like life
effectiveness skills and teamwork.

1.11    
Operational Definition of Terms

Achievement Motivation– Self perception
of the extent to which the individual is driven to achieve excellence and put
the required effort into action to attain it.

Active Initiative– The extent to which
the individual likes to ignite action and get busy in new situations.

Experiential Education– The process
through which a learner constructs knowledge, skill, and value from direct
experiences in outdoor activities.

Emotional Control-The extent to which
individuals perceives they manage to stay calm in stressful situations and
overcome anxiety.

Intellectual Flexibility-The extent to
which individuals perceive they can adapt their thinking and accommodate new
information from changing conditions and different perspectives. 

Life Effectiveness Skills– Domains of
personal and social development that include Achievement Motivation and
Intellectual Flexibility,

Outdoor Activity/Adventure- Activities
that are conducted in nature, and done by individuals or group, for recreation,
competition and for learning purpose.

Outdoor Education- An experiential and
active process of learning by doing, which takes place primarily through
exposure to selected outdoor activities.

Self Confidence-The degree of belief
the individual has in his abilities and the success of his actions.

Social Competence – The degree of personal confidence in ability to
interact and communicate with others.

Task Leadership-The extent to which the
individual perceives he can provide direction to other people effectively when
a given assignment needs to be done

Team Work-perception of willingness to
share information, solving group’s problems, sharing work and assisting in
determining the common goals and activities for the group.

Time Management-The extent that an
individual perceives that he makes optimum use of time and avoids time wastage

CHAPTER
TWO

LITERATURE
REVIEW

2.0       Introduction

This chapter
deals with review of related literature that pertains to the role of O.E.E in
enhancing an individual’s life skills. It will look at History of O.E.E,
benefits of outdoor activities, trends of O.E.E, outdoor experiential education
and lifelong skills, outdoor experiential education and life effectiveness
skills and teamwork.

2.1       History
of Outdoor Experiential Education

The birth of
O.E.E is much attributed to Kurt Hahn who realized that soldiers at sea were
dying in large numbers during combat. He believed that character development
was as important as academic achievement (Flavin, 1996). Due to the ills of the
society, he advocated for a hands-on, real and practical challenges that were
aimed at character development of an individual (Ibid). O.E.E has also been referred to as adventure therapy,
adventure recreation, environmental education, experiential education and
challenge education (Cook, 1999 and Gass, 2003).  O.E.E became evident in late 19^th
century and early 20^th century. Across the world, O.E.E is most prevalent
in USA, UK, New Zealand,
Europe and it is gaining ground in Asia and Africa
(Cook, 1999).

2.2       Benefits
of Outdoor Experiential Education

Through
participation in O.E.E, it is
believed that there exists a psychological and or physical risk which generates
a level of challenge or perceived risk that forms the base of deriving life
long experiences (Gass, 2003). Challenges in life are imperative in drawing out
desired behavioral changes. It is believed that being in wilderness and the
natural setting, and actively engaging in activities helps individuals learn
something about themselves that they had never known before, leading to self
discovery (Scherl 1982). As noted by
ken (2006) and Davidson (2003), experiential learning takes place when one
participates directly in the events presented and as a result of reflecting on
the situation, one gets the opportunity to improve skills on leadership, time
management, and social interaction and above all, self confidence that are
essential in dealing with challenges of life. Paul (2001), there exists five
main importance of engaging in O.E.E as opposed to the class room setting. The
author argues that outdoor education is good for the mind. Outdoor recreation
has psychological benefits, including the prevention or reduction of stress;
improved self-esteem, confidence and creativity and spiritual growth (Paul
2001).  It is further noted that exposure
to O.E.E tends to provide unambiguous, neutral and immediate feed back which is
a recipe for adaptive coping rather than resulting to defense mechanisms
(Skehil, 2004).

2.3       Trends
of Outdoor Experiential Education

O.E.E has gained
popularity more so in industrialized countries and the trend is gaining ground
in the developing countries of Africa and Asia
(Priest and Gass, 2001). It is also becoming the widespread business of
learning and teaching when at the same time, there is a decline in wilderness
resources upon which it depends (Miles, 1986). The lack of adequate research in
Kenya
on the how O.E.E is impacting on individuals engaging in it, is a major concern
and thus the need to have more findings on how organizations taking their
employees for teambuilding can quantify the purpose and reasons for spending
money on such trainings. The ongoing urbanization has delineated people away
from environments that were previously believed to guide their genotype
evolution. This creates a mass disconnection from natural environment
culminating to problems related to physical, social, psychological health and
well being of world populace (Maller et al, 2002). These assertions need to be
explored to the fullest so that many organizations in Kenya can
utilize outdoor education should it be found worth.

The world is becoming more
dynamic by presenting more and complex challenges to its populace than before.
Work environment and employing organization are placing more demands to their
employees who must perform well and achieve results (David, 2008). Apart from
the academic certificates, the organization are more specific on other
attributes like leadership skills, self confidence, team working skills and
ability to thrive under pressure, attributes that are well enhanced in outdoor
education, which has seen an enormous mushrooming of outdoor organization
across the globe (Rebeca,2002). More information and research thus needs to be
done in Africa to determine whether people
engaging in O.E.E can reap benefits that can translate to their performance.

2.4       Outdoor Experiential
Education and Lifelong Skills                                 

O.E.E
imparts to its participants directly by having 
participants immerse themselves fully to the items presented which range
from initiative tests, games and other elements like ropes course and rock
climbing ( Neil,2003). According
to Davidson (2003), outdoor experiential education is holistic and enhances
lifelong skills that help participants; socially, emotionally, physically and
academically. This is further supported by Coopersmith (2002), Roland (2004)
and NASSPA (2007) who believes that outdoor activities are crucial components
that improve the self esteem of an individual positively. Participating in
outdoor activities as opposed to regular exercising helps participants in
promoting physical, social and psychological self esteem and teamwork at the
same time (Coopersmith 2002 and Roland, 2004). Despite the articulated benefits
of outdoor experiential education, Africa and other developing countries are rated to
have low participation due to few outdoor education institutions (Priest &
Gass, 2001).

2.5       Outdoor Experiential Education and
Social Competence, Emotional Control, Teamwork and Active Initiative.

Dembar, (2006)
asserts that outdoor activity encompasses varying techniques and environments
to elicit change that make participants get equipped with skills which impact
positively on their life. These activities include cooperative games, problem
solving initiatives, trust building activities, high ropes courses and peak
ascents (Gass and McPhee 2003). O.E.E not only helps individual in improving
social skills but encompasses equipping participants with skills that are
essential in work environment like planning, teamwork and competency which are
essential in transforming the organization towards achieving its goals
(Geoffrey, 2005). The great outdoors afford social benefits like bonding with
like-minded people, controlling ones emotion so as to fit well with others and
having good inter and intra personal relationship,(Bruce, 2006). It is thus
imperative to find whether such benefits can be achieved in Kenya.

2.6       Related
Studies

Research done by
Hattie et al (2004)  in Australia
involving a sample size of 3000 participants engaging in a 16 days Australian
O.E.E established that the students enhanced their leadership skills, self
concept, personality and interpersonal relationship with the time management
having the greatest significance. He used quasi-experimental research design
with p value set at 0.05. He also applied a repeated measures multivariate ANOVA to analyze the data (Neil,
1999). Despite the big sample size, the research was not based in Africa and it
is hence imperative to find out whether O.E.E in Kenya can derive out similar
results.

Research by
Rahman, (2009) on effects of O.E.E on students’ social emotional competencies
comprised 40 high school students in Singapore. The duration of the
outdoor course was 8 weeks. The research findings indicated medium to large
effects to the participants’ social emotional competence. Mean scores, standard
deviations and person correlation values were calculated using standardized
mean difference. This research failed to consider significance difference based
on age and did not look at effect of O.E.E on team work.

Muthomi
(2008) found that there was significance difference to selected life skills of
260 staff from corporate organizations after attending a 3 days outdoor
program. The data was analyzed using paired t-test and ANOVA. The duration was
short necessitating looking further into effects of a prolonged outdoor course.
The study utilized a lesser range of activities not including energy draining
ones like navigation, expedition and ropes course thus the need to incorporate
them in this research.

Research
by Neil (2008) in Australia to determine the effects O.E.E has on individuals
life skills had a sample size of 3640 participants  found that life skills were greatly enhanced.
Data was analyzed using paired t-test and MANOVA. The group comprised of
adolescents, family, special population, corporate and young adults. This group
did not focus on police and army personnel hence the need to find out what
effects O.E.E  have on these group and
within the Kenyan set up.    

2.7       Summary
of Literature Review                                                                                

This chapter has
highlighted literature on the effects of O.E.E to selected life skills. It has
also covered related research in outdoor education and exposed emerging gaps
and shortcoming of previous research. Some of the shortcomings are the
locations of the study whereby most of the research were done outside. Neil
(2008) and Rahman (2009) carried their research on effects of O.E.E on selected
life skills outside this country, and none of them carried out research on
effects of O.E.E on police and military personnel. It is thus imperative to
find out whether similar findings can be derived within the Kenyan set-up and
more so with police and military personnel. Muthomi (2003), in her doctoral
thesis focused on corporate groups who underwent a 3 days program, thus the
need to find out whether an 11 days O.E.E course in a different set-up can
produce similar results on K.A and A.P. Research by Muthomi (2008), Neil (2008)
and Rahman (2009) all focused on the effects of O.E.E on life effectiveness
skills but did not look at the effects O.E.E can have on teamwork, which
researcher intends to find out.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0       Introduction

This chapter
describes research design, location of the study, target population, sample
size and sampling techniques, research instruments, variables, reliability and
validity, pilot study, data collection techniques, data presentation and
analysis and logistical considerations.

3.1       Research
Design

This will be a
case study that will investigate the effect of O.E.E on individuals’ life effectiveness
skills and teamwork from K.A and A.P. According to Robert (2009), a case study
is normally based on in-depth investigation of group, single individual or
event with the aim of exploring the causes. Since the research will look at
effect of O.E.E on individual’s life skills, a case study will adequately serve
the purpose of the research. The case study will be used in this research where
by participants from K.A and A.P personnel will be the study subjects. The
participants will be undergoing the 11 days O.E.E course at KESAL. The
researcher will employ single-group quasi-experimental pretest-post test design
whereby O.E.E will be the treatment. According to William (2006), quasi
experimental employs a pre and post test to the group which is studied so that
one can determine any significance difference before and after the research.
Since the study will be looking at the effect of O.E.E on participants from K.A
and A.P, a quasi experimental design will be appropriate.

3.2       Location
of the Study

The study will
be conducted at KESAL, which is a training center where trainees from K.A and
A.P regularly go for their O.E.E and leadership. KESAL is located on the
eastern side of Mount Kenya (6 figure grid
reference-255071).

3.3       Target
Population

The target
population for this study will comprise of participants whom will have been
selected by the K.A and A.P participating in an outdoor leadership program at
KESAL. The total population that attends experiential outdoor leadership course
in a year from K.A and A.P is 280 (100 from K.A and 180 from A.P).

3.4       Sampling
Techniques and Sample Size

On an average
KESAL conducts 4 courses in a year for the K.A and A.P. The researcher will
select 2 courses (50%) out of the 4 (100%). On average, the K.A recruits 50 participants
and A.P recruits 90 participants for each course. The researcher will use the
census approach to select the subjects, that is, everyone attending the two
courses from K.A and A.P, will compose the sample size. The sample size will
therefore be 140 subjects (50 from K.A and 90 from A.P). This will be a
proportion of 50% of the target population, and this is adequate in a
quasi-experimental research (William, 2006).

3.5       Research
Instruments

The researcher
will adopt life effectiveness questionnaire (LEQ-H) and self designed
questionnaire on teamwork (appendix B). The LEQ-H was developed by James Neil
and has been used in many research of O.E.E as a tool of measurement of life
effectiveness skills and is recognized to have high validity and reliability
(Neil, Marsh and Richards, 2003). The LEQ-H has 24 items which describe
participant’s behaviors in Likert rating format with five point scale. LEQ-H is
psychometrically sound, multidimensional, and linked to aims of O.E.E program
and has been found to have high correlation coefficient above .96 (Neil etal,
2003).The adopted LEQ-H will cover the 8 subscales attributes on life skills
which will include; time management, social competence, achievement motivation,
intellectual flexibility, task leadership, 
emotional control, active initiative and self confidence. The self
designed questionnaire on teamwork will be subjected to a pilot study to
determine its reliability and validity. It will have 5 subscales which will
include; willingness to share information, solving group’s problems, sharing
work and assisting in determining the common goals and activities of a group.
The respondents will rate themselves
on how well the statement describes them and award themselves the appropriate
rating.

3.6       Variables

Participants’
age will be the independent variable whereas selected attributes of teamwork
and life effectiveness skills like, time management, task leadership, social
competence, achievement motivation, emotional control, intellectual
flexibility, active initiative and self confidence will be the dependent
variables. The academic level, gender and rank will be examined as demographic
variables.

3.7       Reliability
and Validity

To determine
reliability and validity of LEQ-H and self designed questionnaire on teamwork
within Kenyan set up, the researcher will conduct a pilot study with
participants from trainer of trainers who will not form the target group for
the final data collection. Also, experts in area under investigation will be
requested to analyze the relevance of research tools and instruments and their
recommendations will be incorporated. A split half method will be employed to
determine correlation coefficient whereby questionnaire will be split into half
and responses subjected to correlation. For research tools and instruments to
have good reliability and validity the correlation should be .80 and above.

3.8       Pilot
Study

The purpose of
the pilot study will be to determine the reliability and validity of the
research instruments in the Kenyan situation (as highlighted above). Stratified
random sampling procedure will be used to select 15 participants from trainer
of trainers who will be undertaking an O.E.E leadership course at KESAL. During
the pilot study, the research assistants will also get an opportunity to fine
tune their skills in administering LEQ-H and self designed questionnaire on
team work.

3.9      
Data Collection Techniques

The adopted
LEQ-H and self designed questionnaire on teamwork will be administered in two
phases (before and after training). The questionnaire will be administered on
the first and last day of training. This will help in determining whether any
change will have taken place as a result of engaging in O.E.E. The respondents
will fill the (LEQ-H) and self-designed questionnaire items on teamwork which
will include; willingness to share information, solving group’s problems,
sharing work and assisting in determining the common goals and activities of a
group.  The LEQ-H will capture attributes
like active initiative, self confidence, time management, social competence,
achievement motivation, intellectual flexibility, task leadership and emotional
control (appendix B). Since the two groups from K.A and A.P will not be doing
the course at the same time, the researcher will collect the data
independently, with content and facilitation method remaining the same.

3.10     Data
Presentation and Analysis

The
data obtained from this study will be analyzed using descriptive statistics
which will be used to determine any significant difference between pre and post
test results. The collected data will be presented in tables, pie charts and
graphs. The significance level will be set at 0.05. The effect and impact of
O.E.E on participant’s life skills will be analyzed using one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA). Gender, age, academic will be treated as demographic
variables.

3.11     Logistical
and Ethical Considerations.

Prior to the
research, relevant authorization letter will be sought from the Department of
Recreation Management and Exercise Science of Kenyatta University and a
research permit from the Ministry of Higher Education Science and Technology.
The participants will also fill consent letter (appendix A) which explains the
purpose of the study, confidentiality and which requests them for their
voluntary participation in the research.

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Modern Experiential Outdoor Education was first posted on August 25, 2019 at 10:32 pm.
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